LANDSCAPE ecology is mainly based on the patch-corridor-matrix model. Although this model is efficient and has been successfully used in LANDSCAPE ecology studies, but it is believed that this model cannot consider the continuous heterogeneity. This fact has encouraged researchers in the field to find new indicators for LANDSCAPE analysis in a continuous framework. The aim of this study is a comparison of continuous and discrete indices in measuring Gorgan forest LANDSCAPE FRAGMENTATION based on the moving window technique. This technique was performed on a classified map derived from SPOT satellite image in year 2010 using a maximum likelihood algorithm and on NDVI vegetation index from a Landsat satellite image of the year 2010. Window sizes were considered in 60, 90, 150 and 300 meters and six LANDSCAPE class-level metrics were selected for the comparison including LPI, LSI, SPLIT, MESH, AI and PLAND. To assess the correlation between the output images of each of these metrics, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used. The results of the statistical comparisons of different window sizes showed that the values of the correlation coefficient were increased with increasing window size, as the high correlation values were seen when the window size was 300m belonging to PLAND and SPLIT metrics. All of the metrics had minimum correlation values in the window size 60m and the LSI metric had the lowest correlation (0.33).

Since the foundation of LANDSCAPE ecology, the correlation between spatial patterns and ecological processes has always been regarded as one of key topics in this discipline. In this context, LANDSCAPE metrics provide valuable information for the interpretation of LANDSCAPE patterns. It is clear that the scale of input data and the scale of analysis must be coherent in order to calculate and interpret LANDSCAPE metrics correctly. One main method that is often used to assess the scaling effects on LANDSCAPE pattern is to manipulate the grain size or pixel size in satellite images. In this study, The SPOT and LandSat satellite images of 1986 and 2010 and simulations and maps of Markov-cellular automata models of 2020 were used. The effects of spatial resolution on 8 metrics were evaluated using the software FRAGSTATS in class and LANDSCAPE levels. The results showed that the changes in grain size have significant effects on LANDSCAPE metrics and their changes in the future so that the increased grain size will lead to the deacreased number of patches (NP), patch density (PD), LSI and CONAG. In general, metrics showed two types of irregular and increase behaviors according to the reduced grain size; in this study, the changes in grain size are more sensitive than the other metrics. So, the application of these metrics in LANDSCAPE studies shoulde be considerably paid attention.

LANDSCAPE ecology metrics are used to describe composition and configuration of LANDSCAPEs. The aim of this study was examination of habitat loss and FRAGMENTATION in Lisar Protected area in Guilan province during time period of 1990-2015. In this study, using Landsat images(1990-2015), after radiometric and atmospheric correction, three density classes of forest cover(10-40%, 40-70% and above 70%) were produced. Reference maps and field study were applied for interpretation of images and maximum likelihood method was used for classification. Using ArcGis and Patch Analyst software, with derived metrics, trend of habitat loss and FRAGMENTATION was examined.

With the translation of Kevin Lynch’s book, the “Image of the City”, new literature was added to Iranian architecture and urban planning. In this book, Image, the picture (or perception) of the city was translated to “Sima” regardless of its linguistic roots. With the introduction of the LANDSCAPE architecture discipline, a new theoretical framework was added to the architecture and urban planning literature. Later, “Chesm Andaz” was also used by some experts as an equivalent for the term “LANDSCAPE”. The use of these three words interchangeably has caused confusion in the translation of the concept of LANDSCAPE or narrowed down its real meanings. This comparative study drew upon the European Commission’s definition of LANDSCAPE to examine the extent to which vocabulary can convey the meaning of LANDSCAPE in Persian. This study employed library research and lexicographical analysis. The two basic components of the LANDSCAPE are dependence on the external place and the importance of the human mind and perception in his interactions with the environment. Nazar, in the language of Iranian thinkers, is a dynamic tool used for raising new awareness based on the perception of sensations, and “Manzar” is the name of the place in which this phenomenon occurs. Compared to “Sima, ” and “Chesm Andaz”, “Manzar” conveys a more complete sensory perception, and especially compared to “Chesm Andaz”, perception is distant and does not necessarily have a positive attribute. “Manzar” and “Sima” are not synonymous and interchangeable in terms of meaning. “Sima”, in the late meaning, is focused on form and does not express the subjectivity behind the form, therefore it can be considered a LANDSCAPE form. The observer’s continuous conflict with the form of “Manazar” and is accompanied by its memories implies him from the image to the LANDSCAPE. Compared to the stability of “Sima” and “Chem Andaz”, the level of the “Manzar” is more compatible with the dynamics of the LANDSCAPE.

IntroductionLANDSCAPE structure means the pattern of a LANDSCAPE, which is determined by its type of use, but also by its structure, i.e. the size, shape, arrangement and distribution of individual LANDSCAPE elements. For the delineation of these LANDSCAPE elements, or so-called patches, often land use or land cover units are used. In this context, “‘land cover’ refers to the physical surface characteristics of land (for example, the vegetation found there or the presence of built structures), while land use describes the economic and social functions of that land. The heterogeneity of LANDSCAPEs – as a parameter of LANDSCAPE structure – is connoted as the quality or state of consisting of dissimilar elements, as with mixed habitats or cover types occurring on a LANDSCAPE. It is the “opposite of homogeneity, in which elements are the same. As indices of LANDSCAPE structure, LANDSCAPE metrics can be used to describe the composition and spatial arrangement of a LANDSCAPE. They can be applied at different levels to describe single LANDSCAPE elements by such features as size, shape, number or for whole LANDSCAPEs by describing the arrangement of LANDSCAPE elements and the diversity of LANDSCAPE. The reason for using these metrics in spatial analysis may be to record the structure of a LANDSCAPE quantitatively on the basis of area, shape, edge lines, diversity and topology-descriptive mathematical ratios; to document for purposes of monitoring; or to make the relevant information available as input parameters for LANDSCAPE ecological simulation models. Biological diversity in all its dimensions and facets is always tied to habitats, which need a concrete areal section of the earth’s surface for their existence. Biological diversity is therefore always defined for a certain reference area, and LANDSCAPE structure is a key element for the understanding of species diversity. Spatial heterogeneity, as an expression of LANDSCAPE structure, indicates the variability of the system’s properties in spatial terms. Since the complexity of biological diversity is difficult to describe, most ecologists have taken the practical way to research and to identify the biological diversity at the species level Therefore, the selection of structural indicators was undertaken specific to the habitat type or tested species studied. Local data on species diversity can provide information as a proxy for regional biodiversity. An investigation of flora and fauna is, however, typically not comprehensive, but rather generally covers only a small proportion of all species. The clear determination of the diversity of various taxonomic groups requires very high efforts, knowledge and money. Hence a good substitute is needed. By combination of indicator species and groups with spatial environmental data and LANDSCAPE structure, the power and deputy information can be increased and expanded geographically. Which parameters are suitable for the characterization and description of LANDSCAPE diversity, and can therefore be used as an indicator for biodiversity? In principle, a few indicators are sufficient to ascertain LANDSCAPE patterns. However, biodiversity cannot be described only by a simple number, as there are various qualities of spatial patterns. A selection of indices representing various aspects of biodiversity is much more informative and capable of interpretation. However, the use of many highly correlated indices provides no new information, and leads to problems in interpreting the results. For this reason, mutually independent indices should be selected. By means of indicators in monitoring, dramatic changes in values can be detected and serve as an early warning, and as an indication of the necessity for deeper investigation, even if no specific limit values can be defined. LANDSCAPE metrics may also be used to identify hot spots of biodiversity. Although they do not replace direct measurement of species biodiversity, these surveys can help make them more effective and less. Habitat FRAGMENTATION also reduces the productivity of ecosystems because smaller areas of habitat are often less resilient to severe weather or disease shocks. Habitat FRAGMENTATION is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered. The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases the FRAGMENTATION of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation it is preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat. The design of efficient and effective land conservation policies must therefore consider both the total amounts of habitat conserved and the spatial configuration of that habitat.Forest FRAGMENTATION has become a global concern for conservation of important habitats as well as biodiversity. Protected areas that have been a cornerstone for safeguarding biological diversity are also facing enormous stress due to the increasing anthropogenic activities.The impacts that FRAGMENTATION has on both wildlife and vegetation within a fragment and perhaps more importantly, the impact of loss of intact habitat and wildlife on the people relying on the remaining fragments, are important to understanding and slowing or preventing future decline. As fragments decrease and become more degraded, encroachment into the park and the number and severity of human-wildlife incidences may increas.Establishing protectd ara is the primary mechanism used to protect forest biodiversity, particularly in regions with high human densities. protected areas protect and maintain endemic, threatened or endangered, flora and fauna, geological features, and cultural heritage sites. In addition, they can generate income for the local and national economies, and provide important benefits associated with enhanced tourism sectors. However, many protected are also associated with negative social and ecological impacts. The processes that drive land cover change are complex and cannot be understood without addressing underlying cause and effect relationships. Changes in climate, population, and land use occur and interact simultaneously at different temporal and spatial scales, having major implications for both livelihoods and biodiversity. Forest loss and FRAGMENTATION are regarded as the greatest threat to global biological diversity.This study estimates the degree of spatial FRAGMENTATION in the protected area. Landsat TM 30 m satellite images of 1988 and 2014 were used as base maps in this study.The purpose of this study was to determine the extent and direction of changes in dense vegetation cover of Anzali watershed with using LANDSCAPE ecology approach during period of1989-2014.Material and methods: As indices of LANDSCAPE structure, LANDSCAPE metrics can be used to describe the composition and spatial arrangement of a LANDSCAPE. They can be applied at different levels to describe single LANDSCAPE elements by such features as size, shape, number or for whole LANDSCAPEs by describing the arrangement of LANDSCAPE elements and the diversity of LANDSCAPE. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent and direction of changes in dense vegetation cover of Anzali watershed with using LANDSCAPE ecology approach during period of1989-2014.This area has been selected for its habitat values and its role in sustainability of international watershed of Anzali. First Anzali watershed area extracted then dense vegetative cover area extracted from it. This area was classified in two classes of vegetation cover and bare. In following after separating Gashtrodkhan protected area, its dense vegetation cover was interpreted. After that vector layers of vegetation cover were built that it was used as input of patch analyst extension to calculate metrics.Discussion of results and conclusions: The results present considerable changes in CA, Numps, Mps, ED and TE metrics both in all patches and main patch that with respecting the direction of change it can be concluded FRAGMENTATION process is rising.

Integrity and connectivity of habitats in protected areas is important for the plants survival and animals' populations. Investigating on the integrity of areas could help to interconnect islanded patches and preventing the negative impacts of FRAGMENTATIONs. This study aimed to quantify the FRAGMENTATIONs of the LANDSCAPE to study the habitat of the important wildlife species in Jajroud protected area. To achieve this goal, after preparing area land use map using remote sensing and geographic information system techniques, the FRAGMENTATION elements were extracted to create FRAGMENTATION geometries. The acquired data were employed to study structure and the wild goat habitat integrity, wild sheep, the leopard and gazelle considering the LANDSCAPE metrics. The results indicate that, the greatest increase in the FRAGMENTATION in LANDSCAPE and between animal habitats has been happened due to the obstacles of the first geometry, which is included man-made lands and asphalt roads. Also, the greatest increase in FRAGMENTATION for wild sheep and gazelle occurred in first geometry, for wild goat in second geometry (garden) and for leopard in the fourth geometry (dam). Many conflicts pass through the sensitive species habitats of the wildlife, and the irreparable effects of conflicts will be more identified in the long term. The results of this research indicate that by analyzing LANDSCAPE metrics in protected areas, it is possible to identify and prioritize the most important obstacles of maintaining the integrity of the habitat of different wildlife species; and also planning for the conservation of the habitat of the wildlife species will be prepared.